Psychological Disorders Essay - 1876 Words

There are multiple criteria that come into play when determining a psychological disorder. One reason is because, it is hard to know for sure if an action is abnormal or not. Something could be abnormal in our country, but a custom in another. According to Psychology in Action, â€Å"[r]ather than being fixed categories, both â€Å"abnormal† and â€Å"normal† behaviors exist along a continuum, and no single criterion is adequate for [i]dentifying all forms of abnormal behavior† (Huffman). There are four criteria used to determine whether behavior is abnormal. These are known as the four D’s. The first is deviance, this means that someones thoughts are different than those in the their culture and/or society. The second is dysfunction, this is when a†¦show more content†¦But when the acquisition of and inability to discard worthless items becomes extreme, it can interfere with basic aspects of living, such as cleaning, cooking, sleeping on a bed, and moving around ones home. This abnormal behavior is associated with several psychological disorders, but it is most commonly found in people who have obsessive compulsive disorder, or OCD . . . (Ch. 14). In the middle ages they had no way to explain this behavior. They believed the only diagnosis was evil spirits and/ or witchcraft. They tried trephining, which was drilling holes into the skull in order to let the evil spirits out. They also performed exorcisms, fasting, noise making, beating, and nasty brews in order to help these people. Later on they started thinking that these people chose to affiliate with the devil. They believed that were witches and they would either torchure them, imprison them for life, or they would be executed. A very well known case of this happening is the Salem Witch Trials. Three young girls began acting out. According to the article The Mystery of the Salem Witch Trials, â€Å"Their strange behaviors included hallucinations, shouting out in church, having fits, making strange sounds, and feeling as if they were being pricked and poked† (Annika). The only diagnosis the doctor could come up with, was that the girls have beenShow MoreRelatedPsychological Disorders : A Psychological Disorder1632 Words   |  7 PagesPsychological disorders are often a taboo subject in our society. Many find themselves to be the subject of ridicule and/or a social pariah from their peers at the simple hint of a mental disorder. This stems largely from simple ignorance to the cause and actual effects of the problems. Many of the same people that spend most of the day complaining about others that have psychological disorders could potentially find themselves and their behavior defined as such. Psycho logical disorder are an, â€Å"ongoingRead MorePsychological Disorders : A Psychological Disorder1097 Words   |  5 PagesA psychological disorder is a pattern of abnormal behavior that is associated with states of significant emotional distress, such as anxiety or depression, or with impaired behavior or ability to function, such as difficulty holding a job or even distinguishing reality form fantasy. (Abnormal Psychology; 3) There are people that become embarrassed by their psychological disorder or abnormal behavior and refuse to receive help because they are afraid of what society and even their family may thinkRead MorePsychological Disorder740 Words   |  3 PagesPsychological Disorder Paper Psy/450 University of Phoenix Amanda Kettinger 3 July 2010 Psychological Disorder Many mental disorders vary from person to person and in its on severity. All disorders have both a physical and psychological components. Abnormal behavior is difficult to define. 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Did you know that back in the 1800’s when doctors were just beginning to understand psychological disorders, that if you were thought to suffer from a psychological disorder you could have holes drilled into your head or you could be put on any number of experimental drugs that could in fact make the conditionRead MorePsychological Disorders1154 Words   |  5 PagesPsychological Disorder July, 20, 2011 Psychological Disorder Paper Psychological disorders are stated to be abnormalities of the mind, known as mental disorders (Klasco, 2011). Abnormalities of the mind cause persistent behaviors that affect an individualà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s daily function and life (Klasco, 2011). The different types of psychological disorders include mood disorders, personality disorders, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders (Klasco, 2011). The causes of these disorders are unknown, butRead MorePsychological And Psychological Aspects Of Psychological Disorders1814 Words   |  8 PagesPsychological Disorders A psychological disorder is a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance within an individual’s cognition, emotion, regulation, or behavior. Typically, a behavior is marked as disturbing or dysfunctional when they interfere with one’s day-to-day life. The medical model approach assumes that a psychological disorder is a mental illness and comes with physical causes that can be diagnosed, sometimes treated, and sometimes cured through therapy or possibly throughRead MoreBipolar Disorder : A Psychological Disorder1293 Words   |  6 PagesBipolar disorder is a psychological disorder in which a person alternates between being depressed to extremely happy and being cross or irritable. Bipolar disorder is also known manic-depressive illness. Bipolar disorder can cause shifts in energy, mood and activity level. This disorder can cause damage up to many things like relationships, jobs, school performance and even suicide. There are many treatments to bipolar diso rder for those that have or are being affected. Bipolar Disorder BipolarRead MoreBipolar Disorder : A Psychological Disorder1536 Words   |  7 PagesBipolar disorder is a brain disorder that is becoming a serious medical condition and health concern in this country. It is also known as manic-depressive illness or manic-depressive disorder. The disorder causes unusual shifts in mood, energy, and the ability to carry out day to day tasks. The symptoms are different from normal ups and downs that everyone goes through from time to time. The mental condition involves having a person alternate between feelings of mania and depression. Bipolar disorderRead MoreMental Disorders : A Psychological Disorder1178 Words   |  5 PagesA psychological disorder, also known as a mental disorder, is a pattern of behavioral or psychological symptoms that impact multiple life areas and create distress for the person experiencing these symptoms. These symptoms are characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual s cognitive, emotion regu lation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or developmental process underlying mental functioning. Mental disorders are usually associated with

Control System- Pressure Regulator Free Essays

string(192) " is because of both feed back path ways one through the direct one and the other through the pilot, the regulators demonstrate a more complex control action than the simple proportional mode\." A type or certain group of elements that function together as a unified whole, is a system. This widened description thus gives some meaning to control systems as a whole. By re-establishing the basic principles and functions worked out, a system’s limit can be extended to include little or more characteristics just as long as each singular variable contributes in a way to the particular system activity. We will write a custom essay sample on Control System- Pressure Regulator or any similar topic only for you Order Now This explains that the system does not halt interaction to other systems or peripherals. In the process industry, the term control system is sometimes normally used to specify a process, and the apparatus basically required to run the process. The system is tested with various actions so it will conform to a standard, these include; load, commands and disturbances which cause it to respond in some individual manner. A system is best made so that it will respond positively. In order for a system to act in the way prescribed is to control the system. The basic concept of comparing the measured and prescribed system performance, and then taking any action to change the process thereby minimizing errors, is called negative feedback. The system can vice-versa be called a closed-loop control system, or a negative feedback control system. To make a system automated it should be mechanized. To create the maintenance of a constant value in a control, is not the major primary objective of control; once the prescribed behavior is achieved, the control function is fulfilled. Although the use of control measure is in most cases involved with mechanical equipment, they can also be used in fields such as (e.g. in the social, biological or in different other systems). The science of achieving control, by using or not using feedback, is the method of control theory. This is applicable to system control in general. Most control systems have evolved by the practice of trial and error, for the critical design of system controls with the need for extensive analysis of two factors, the control devices and the process. 2.0 TYPES OF REGULATORS- 2.1 SIMPLE PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM (SELF OPERATED REGULATOR): For a typical uncontrolled system, let us say it is required for it to provide a standard pressure, P, at a given measure and that the discharge, Q2, provides for an external system, which, its need for this fluid varies. At a given time interval, the external system regulates valve No. 2 to comply with the needed specifications. The curves given in Fig 1.0 FIG 1.1 Shows the way in which it alters the process of the pressure. In earlier results in time, t1, some initial stable condition exists where, Q1 and Q 2 are of the same and the process pressure is significantly at the aimed equivalent. A level change occurs at, Q1 when time is at, t1, this reduces the fluid mass between the valves. This is followed mainly by a drop in the process pressure. For a system which is uncontrolled the pressure decline will continue until the drop over valve No. 1 is enough again to build equal flows and a new constant state functioning condition is gained. The procedure can be controlled; i.e. the suitable needed pressure can be managed if the significant rise in Q1 were gotten by increasing the opening of valve No. 1. A typical way of doing this is given in Fig 1.1. FIG 1.3 The response for the process pressure is sent to a spring opposed diaphragm that gives free way for the pressure to manoeuvre the valve. In a working mode, the contraction in the spring will be set so that at some constant state working condition the required process pressure, acting on the diaphragm section, this balances the force that the spring carries. The aimed process pressure is known as a set point. Changes from the set point which is caused by load variation will be controlled because as the process pressure differs, the matching force given back to the diaphragm will regulate the valve position to reduce the pressure variance to a certain range of value around the set point. The careful control of the pressure will rely on how big a flow change the regulator will be able to carry out for a minimal amount of pressure. The regulator flow change to process pressure change is the gain of the regulator and this will rely on the diaphragm area, the valve size, stiffness of the spring, and the general pressure drop over it. The corrective activity done by the regulator is proportional to the change of the process from its set point. Such an element is called the proportional or proportional mode, control. When using the proportional control, the corrective action can only carry on when some different outlines exist. The final pressure change needed to completely stroke the regulator is known as the proportional band and it shows around what limits the regulator can control. FIG 1.4 illustrates where the process measurement supplies the whole valve actuating force, this is known as self-operated regulators. FIG 1.5 The above demonstrates a self operated regulators made for the control of temperature, flow and level. The operation method is practically the same with the pressure regulator. They are widely used in various applications of specialty in the industrial field. 3.0 PILOT OPERATED PRESSURE REGULATOR: This regulator uses a little pilot valve assembly to aide in actuating the main valve. Generally the pilot operated pressure regulator shown in Fig 1.6 FIG 1.6 when in operation, the process pressure works on the lower side of the main diaphragm which is similar to the self operated regulator. The pilot also quantifies the process pressure and, upstream pressure as power source, changes the loading on the top side of the main diaphragm. The diaphragm serves as an amplifier, generally bearing a gain from process to loading pressure of 10 to 20 psi per psi. This is because of both feed back path ways one through the direct one and the other through the pilot, the regulators demonstrate a more complex control action than the simple proportional mode. You read "Control System- Pressure Regulator" in category "Papers" The pilot operated regulator are available for all the four major process variables; flow, pressure level and temperature even though the direct acting path is left out in some cases. With the pilot operated regulator it is generally easier to achieve a greater regulator gain. Both the self and pilot operated regulators share similar attributes that have, in many cases, brought about some restraints. In some instances like if the fluid is corrosive, loaded with contaminants or of very high temperature, apparent issues may arise. Essentially at most one of the diaphragm casings, should, be able, to hold the maximum process pressure. The most possibly vital deficiency, from, the basis that static and dynamic elements of any specific form of process; i.e., level, pressure, etc. can differ respectively from one installation to the other so the choice of the amount of gain to be designed into a regulator without causing any sort of system instability, is made a very tasking procedure. It means that the regulator can not be altered to suit the characteristics of the process to which it has been applied. This Fig 1.7 is the block diagram of a pilot operated regulator FIG 1.7 3.1 INSTRUMENT CONTROL: The pressure control system illustrated in Fig 1.8 FIG 1.8 it surpasses all the limits considerably attached to the self and pilot operated regulators. It generally contains three detachable hardware pieces: the process controller, the control valve, and the valve actuator. Other controllers such as this stands for one of an entire family of peripherals generally referred to as instruments. The process fluid touches only the control valve and its sensing element. This is a small part which has no orifice and could get contaminated. They can be made from several types of materials to achieve high standard against corrosion and temperature. An external source for pneumatic power is used for working parts in the controller to provide clean, dry instrument air. The air supply is regulated so that the pressure is at a standard rate and that the controller and actuator are made to work with a standard pressure signal level, free of the process fluid pressure. A regular standard pressure supply is within 20 psig with a usual ranging of signal within 2 to 15 psig. They are ready for use with numerous sensing element and they give the significance of the process which is being controlled. They are commonly known as indicative controllers. To minimize trial and error the set point is normally calibrated to generally prevent subsequent start ups. The Fig 1.8 is like most pneumatic controller models, it has two levels with an adjustable measure of response and amplification around both levels. The input variable moves an end of a beam which holds the air flow through a nozzle. The pressure of the nozzle is sensitive to the point of the beam itself. The pressure of the nozzle performs on the top diaphragm of a pressure equal valve assembly that is the second amplifier level. As a result of the huge valve ports it is has the capacity to give an extreme flow progression to the actuator which works as a power amplifier. The pressure is given back to the amplifiers which moves the nozzle beams in a direction which opposes the sensing effect. Element motion ( i.e. negative feedback ). The three way valve behaves as a pressure divider and its regulation decides what amount of feedback should be consumed. Leaving the dynamics out, the controller can be seen as having a high gain movement path with a regulated gain response path. It provides only proportional control mode but its area of reach can be freely adjusted over a vast range by means of the pressure divider. The purpose of the integral mode is to remove any steady state process deviation and the reason for the deviation mode is to give an improved transient control. These modes improve the flexibility of the controller. 4.0 COMPUTER CONTROL- The reason for central control is to bring to a particular location, adequate information and hardware to allow an operator to control the plant variances, which are product yield and quality, and to manage the automated control of process variances, which are flow and temperature. In order for all duties to be carried out by the operator must have a sound knowledge of process variances, but how they should be. The adequate values for the process variances will differ as operating circumstances may be affected by things such as contamination, variations in reactants, load, changes in the products wanted or quality. The set points calculation can be made from the plant requirements and information about the plant operating elements. The early use of digital computers for process controls was for plant performance calculation the whole system works in an automated form sampling of transmitter signals. The optimizing of control and direct digital controls in Fig 1.9 FIG 1.9 Illustration of the hierarchy control as given in FIG 2.0 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. An Introduction to Hardware .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 83-92. 5.0 CONTROL ELEMENTS- 5.1 BASIC ELEMENT: Any system can be broken down into various divisions for understanding it’s rather important to consider two levels of dub divisions. The first are those components in a control loop that are manufactured, tested, purchased and even design as standalone pieces of equipments. 5.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELS OF PHYSICAL DEVICES: The mathematical representation of physical devices can be done with the use of the fundamental physical laws which include Ohm’s Law Newton’s Laws, flow equations, conservation of mass and energy, etc. The use of impedance is often but not always helpful when deriving a mathematical model when a system is dynamic there is a circumstance which is forcing the change. This force is always some kind of potential energy .When a change occurs that is the dynamic system which is a movement known as flux. This flux generally depends on the physical characteristics of the system. Some forms of flux are shown in Table 1.0. TABLE 1.0 Impedance shows the mathematical relationship between potential and flux, it is the ratio of an increase change in potential to an increase change in flux. EQUATION. 1 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Basic Elements.1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 93-94. 6.0 PROCESS CONTROL SYSTEM The performance of a process control system is calculated by considering the system’s output to the set point. The difference between both amounts is error or system deviation .The response of a regulatory system, for a step increase in load. Many standard words are defined in the schematic and several of them are used to describe the mistakes which might occur. It is obvious that no certain way such as settling time, maximum value of transient deviation, steady- state deviation gives a measure of system performance. Different approaches methods have been used for the error index. A tank which has several sources of flow as given in Fig 2.1 can be easily described by using block diagrams and flow components. For easy understanding lets say Pc = constant. The equation for flow is: PRESSURE PROCESS STEADY FLOW (FIG 2.1) In order to illustrate the nature of a process control system consider Fig 2.2 for the control equipment has a valve, diaphragm, actuator, and a locally mounted PI measuring controller FIG 2.2 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Process Dynamics .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 202-204. 7.0 ACCURACY AND SENSITIVITY 7.1 ACCURACY â€Å"In general, the greatest accuracy-closest regulation-is obtained with the largest diaphragm and shortest range which will give the required control pressure. For example, a control pressure of 40 psig can be obtained with any of the three ranges in model RP-1065-A and with two of the three ranges in model RP-1066-A. Closest regulation can be expected with the 5 – 50 psi range of model RP-1066-A (size 10 diaphragm). See table for â€Å"Accuracy of Regulation.† Unbalanced port areas are not considered in the values tabulated. Small amounts of unbalance are present in single-seated 1/2†³ â€Å"A† valves and in semi-balanced double seated valves 2†³ through 4†³. Under conditions of high pressure drop, the forces opposing valve closure will influence selection of the regulator model (diaphragm size). See â€Å"Accuracy of Regulation† tabulation for actual port area unbalance† FIG 2.3 [WWW] http://www.skilenvironmental.com/documents/160_RP1065A_1066A.pdf In addition what changes can made to the diaphragm area, spring rate, orifice size, and inlet pressure, the regulator accuracy can be enhanced by simply putting a pitot tube. Internal to the regulator, the pitot tube joins the diaphragm cover with a low-pressure, high velocity region inside the regulator body. The pressure in the area will be lower than P2 when it goes downstream. By using a pitot tube to calculate the lower pressure, the regulator change in its response to any change in P2. The pitot tube tricks the regulator. 7.2 SENSITIVITY The principle of operation and loading, actuating, and control components are in all designs. Many regulators use simple wire coil springs to control the downstream pressure. Numerous size springs are used to allow regulation of the secondary pressure around a target range. The needed pressure is at the centre one-third of the rated outlet pressure range. In the lower end of the pressure range, the spring loses some sensitivity; at the high end, the spring close to it maximum capacity. Regulators can use diaphragm or piston to detect or sense downstream pressure. Diaphragms are more sensitive to pressure variations and react quicker. They can operate where sensitive pressure settings are needed (lower than 0.04 psi). Pistons generally are more rugged and give a larger effective sensing area in a particular size regulator. The functional difference between general-purpose and precision regulators is the degree of control accuracy of the output pressure. Output pressure accuracy is gotten by the droop due to flow changes (regulator characteristics). [WWW] http://machinedesign.com/article/pneumatic-pressure-regulators-1115 8.0 FEEDBACK This section will develop the performance limitations imposed by a particular load when a conventional flow control valve is utilized in the valve-actuator component. It will then show that the load versus flow characteristic of the forward loop can be modified very advantageously. Various techniques utilized in the past for this purpose, such as controlled actuator by-pass leakage and structural feedback, are compared with a new technique called dynamic pressure feedback (D.P.F.). The analytical work is fortified by reports of actual tests of a representative system. The electrohydraulic position servo can be represented by the block diagram shown in Fig 2.4. This diagram separates the valve-actuator integration from the hydraulic and structural compliance of the actuator. The diagram also represents the particular load case under discussion. The analysis of servo stability and performance is affected by the choice of position feedback location. Output position can be measured at the actuator or at the load. If the feedback is from the actuator position, the analytical task is made more difficult. However, it is apparent from the block diagram that the quantities Xp and X0 react in a proportional manner to inertia forces. It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that the two cases should yield similar results. This discussion will be based on selection of feedback intelligence from the load position, X0, due to the relative simplicity of analysis. However, a careful comparison of this simpler case with the more difficult to analyse case of actuator feedback position has been carried out. An analogue computer was utilized for this comparison. The results of the study confirmed that the two cases are really very similar in dynamic performance achievable. The use of actuator position feedback suffers some comparative penalty statically with respect to error introduced by external (load disturbance) forces.† [WWW] http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet;jsessionid=6464D27CC3E73FAFE7C6220F352B4F85?contentType=ArticleFilename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/1270320604.pdf FIG 2.4 [WWW]http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/ViewContentServlet;jsessionid=6464D27CC3E73FAFE7C6220F352B4F85?contentType=ArticleFilename=/published/emeraldfulltextarticle/pdf/1270320604.pdf 9.0 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT â€Å"Fluid pressure can be defined as the measure of force per-unit-area exerted by a fluid, acting perpendicularly to any surface it contacts (a fluid can be either a gas or a liquid, fluid and liquid are not synonymous). The standard SI unit for pressure measurement is the Pascal (Pa) which is equivalent to one Newton per square meter (N/m2) or the KiloPascal (kPa) where 1 kPa = 1000 Pa. In the English system, pressure is usually expressed in pounds per square inch (psi). Pressure can be expressed in many different units including in terms of a height of a column of liquid. CONVERSION UNITS FOR COMMON UNITS OF PRESSURE (TABLE 2) PRESSURE TERMS RELATIONSHIP (FIG 2.5) Table lists commonly used units of pressure measurement and the conversion between the units. Pressure measurements can be divided into three different categories: absolute pressure, gage pressure and differential pressure. Absolute pressure refers to the absolute value of the force per-unit-area exerted on a surface by a fluid. Therefore the absolute pressure is the difference between the pressure at a given point in a fluid and the absolute zero of pressure or a perfect vacuum. Gage pressure is the measurement of the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. Local atmospheric pressure can vary depending on ambient temperature, altitude and local weather conditions. The U.S. standard atmospheric pressure at sea level and 59à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½F (20à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½C) is 14.696 pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or 101.325 kPa absolute (abs). When referring to pressure measurement, it is critical to specify what reference the pressure is related to. In the English system of units, measurement relating the pressure to a reference is accomplished by specifying pressure in terms of pounds per square inch absolute (psia) or pounds per square inch gage (psig). For other units of measure it is important to specify gage or absolute. The abbreviation .abs’ refers to an absolute measurement. A gage pressure by convention is always positive. A .negative’ gage pressure is defined as vacuum. Vacuum is the measurement of the amount by which the local atmospheric pressure exceeds the absolute pressure. A perfect vacuum is zero absolute pressure. Fig 2.5 shows the relationship between absolute, gage pressure and vacuum. Differential pressure is simply the measurement of one unknown pressure with reference to another unknown pressure. The pressure measured is the difference between the two unknown pressures. This type of pressure measurement is commonly used to measure the pressure drop in a fluid system. Since a differential pressure is a measure of one pressure referenced to another, it is not necessary to specify a pressure reference. For the English system of units this could simply be psi and for the SI system it could be kPa. In addition to the three types of pressure measurement, there are different types of fluid systems and fluid pressures. There are two types of fluid systems; static systems and dynamic systems. As the names imply, a static system is one in which the fluid is at rest and a dynamic system is on in which the fluid is moving†. [WWW] http://www.scribd.com/doc/2339144/Understanding-Pressure-and-Pressure-Measurement 10.0 CONTROLLERS The major use of controllers is to detect errors in the variables and to create error correction messages that which is caused by the error. To complete this task the controller design must have an adjustable set point that can be comparison to the process variable. The error that is given is sent as a response for needed action to be carried out. The block diagram is given in Fig . The input could be as an input from the transmitter, which happens in the situation involving a receiver-controller. A three mode controller transfer function likely should be as given in the equation , the static gain has been resolved in two perspectives ; K is the nominal output and input spans and this would normally n=be unity for a receiver controller, and Kc is an adjustable measurement known as proportional gain. EQUATION. 2 The three modes stated above give the derivative, integral, and proportional modes respectively. FIG 2.6 Simpler controller designs employing one or two modes are often used. The basic combinations are P- Proportional only I- Integral only PI- proportional plus integral PD proportional plus derivative PID proportional plus integral plus derivative The transfer function may be derived from EQUATION. 2 by eliminating the appropriate terms. In the self operated regulator the actuator, controller and sensor are normally the same thing and with the same element. The controller has no other than the set point and has fixed gain and practically no adjustments. The transfer function is taken as: EQUATION. 3 Considering an example with a regulator with a set point of 5 psig and a flow capacity of 0.6, a temperature of 60 degree (Fahrenheit) and a pressure of 5 psig. The off set flow capacity will be 20 percent. The density can be determined with the use of the equation of state of a perfect gas as shown below: CALCULATION .1 LLOYD, SHELSON, G AND ANDERSON, GERALD, D. 1971. Industrial Control Process. Control Components .1st edn. Marshaltown, Iowa: Fisher Controls Co. pp. 115 – 148. 11.0 INPUT AND OUTPUT â€Å"This simple valve model has three states: OPEN, WORKING, and CLOSED. As the valve is the only component of the pressure-regulator that has state, the composite device, likewise, has only three states: [OPEN], [WORKING], and [CLOSED]. Suppose the input pressure is decreasing and the pressure-regulator is in state [WORKING], then dXFp = +, which causes A, the cross-sectional area available for flow to increase. This raises the possibility that A A,, may no longer hold. If that happens, the state ends, and the device transitions into a new one with the valve pinned in state OPEN. In this state, the pressure-regulator provides no regulation at all because the input pressure is less than the regulator’s target output pressure. The resulting state diagram is illustrated in FIG 2.7 the diagram in the case where the input pressure is increasing. This example, although extremely simple, illustrates the task of drawing inferences concerning the termination of states and the determination of the next state. Note that no input disturbance can cause the valve to move to or from state CLOSED. In this device, every increase in input pressure results in a decrease in area available for flow. But even if the input pressure continues to grow unboundedly, the area will never become zero (if it were zero, the output pressure would be zero and hence the action of the sensor could be holding the valve closed). For any finite pressure, the area will be non-zero. Only as pressure tends to infinity does the area approach zero as the mathematical limit. This is a counter-example to the seductive fallacy that infinite sums of non-zero values always diverge. The point to be made here is that even though the qualitative algebra is extremely simple, it nevertheless concerns derivatives, integrals, and time, and one must be careful least one fall into the well-known pitfalls concerning infinitesimals.† How to cite Control System- Pressure Regulator, Papers

Kraft Case Study free essay sample

Kraft Foods continues to grow and change to meet changing consumer needs, in part by building on its history — the legacy of its well-known brands, the character of its founders and the dedication of its employees. The company has continued to build on the innovative spirit of its past, with new products such as low-fat and fat-free products in a variety of categories. As for our case strategic management analysis of Kraft Food Inc, our group had structured the findings from examine their statement vision and mission, audit the external factors of the company opportunities and threat by doing the five forces model of competition, Competitive Profile Matrix (CPM), External Factor Evaluation Matrix (EFE) and Positioning Map as to evaluate the Kraft’s rivals position in the market. Besides, our groups observe the company’s internal factor as such their own strength and weakness by going through the Financial Ratio analysis and Internal factor Evaluation Matrix (IFE). Also, we had included the SWOT Analysis, Grand Strategy Matrix, Internal-External Matrix (IE), Quantitative Strategic Planning Matrix (QSPM) and some recommendation and justifications from our point of views. The objective of the assignment is to help us understanding the practicality that management people in each organization have done in the process of formulating strategies as to ensure the strategies will maximize a long term return to the company yet to achieve the sustainable competitive advantages. Therefore, this assignment has given an ease for us to understand more about the course of Strategic Management. . 0 STATEMENT OF VISION AND MISSION (ACTUAL) Vision: â€Å"Helping People around the World Eat and Live Better† Mission: Our vision tells the world-our employees, customers, consumers and the communities where we make and sell our products-what we care about. It captures the importance of health and wellness, but it also embodies all the ways we can eat and live better, such as the enjoyment of a dessert, the convenience of a microwave meal, the safety and value of our products and the services and solutions we provide. . 0 STATEMENT OF VISION AND MISSION (PROPOSED) Vision: â€Å"Being the First Choice of Healthy Food Products† Mission: A mission statement is often the most visible and public part of the strategic management process, it is important that it includes all of these essential components: 1. Customers 2. Products or services 3. Markets 4. Technology 5. Concern for survival, growth and profitability 6. Philosophy 7. Self-concept 8. Concern for public image 9. Concern for employee The recommended mission statement for Kraft Food can be as follows: â€Å"Kraft Food is devoted to providing its customers appetite for life, which love to laugh and live to eat. At Kraft Food we believe it is the best in the world. We aim to be the most successful food company in the world at delivering the best customer experience in markets we serve. By do so; Kraft Food will meet its customer expectations through highest quality food prepared with leading technology and by hiring and retaining personnel with exceptional capabilities. Michael porter provided a framework that models an industry as being influenced by five forces. The strategic business manager seeking to develop an edge over rival firms can use this model to better understand the industry context in which the firm operates. According to Porter, the nature of competitiveness in a given industry can be viewed as a composite of five forces which are rivalry among competing firms, potential entry of new competitors, potential development of substitute products, bargaining power of suppliers, and bargaining power of consumers. As for our case analysis, we need to identify and evaluate the Kraft Food Inc. ’s five forces model competition. Rivalry among competing firms is the most powerful of the five competitive forces which describes the intensity of competition between existing players (companies) in an industry. The ongoing war between firms competing in the same industry for gaining customer share tends to increase revenues and profits. The competition is more intense if firm pursue strategies that gives competitive advantage over the strategies pursued by rivals. High competitive pressure will results in pressure on prices, margins, and hence, on profitability for every single company in the industry. In such ways, we had come across from the case; Kraft has its own rivals in the same competing industry as such Nestle and Con Agra. These two companies give an intensity in selling essentially the same products as there will always end up being a price war which will severely hurt the company profits. These food industry companies have had problem and fierce competition for them to make a profit. For example, Nestle, is the largest food processing company yet it also produces health and beauty and pet care products. Not only that, the majority of Nestle’s revenues from international sales compared to Kraft Food Inc. is primarily generated their revenue from North American Company. Moreover, Kraft also finds itself competing with generic products and retailer brands, wholesalers and cooperatives. These products are largely competitive threat to Kraft. Otherwise, ConAgra Food is the largest publicly held firm that Kraft Food competes with in the US market. It also leading the branded foods company and one of the nation’s leading specialty potato providers to restaurants and other foodservice establishments. Thus, it gives a big intensity towards Kraft to lead the industry in to reach the sustainable competitive advantages. Another force might come from potential entry of new competitors. The competition in an industry will be the higher; the easier it is for other companies to enter this industry. In such a situation, new entrants could change major determinants of the market environment for instance; market shares, prices, customer loyalty at any time. The latent pressure of a new organization entering the industry is high when it is easy for an organization to enter the industry i. e. entry barriers are low. An organization will look at how loyal customers are to existing products, how quickly they can achieve economy of scales, would they have access to suppliers, would government legislation prevent them or encourage them to enter the industry. Threat of entrants is high and unfavorable in the industry. This is a real threat in a place like Pakistan where the food industry views constantly changing patterns in demand. Due to its consumer base, that is always on the look-out for new and changed product which suit with the current trends and customers’ eating habits and preferences at home and restaurants. Every now and then, it can be seen that currently market for packaged and processed food has been increased and many retails brand has offered new product of which only a few are able to successfully survive in the long run. Thus, Kraft must concentrate its efforts on ‘differentiation strategy’ as that is the key of survival in the food industry especially, in the market for packaged and processed foods. For examples, Kraft has made a major successful with its OREO biscuits as they were no other brand offered such product at that time. After that, a number of rivals whether the existing rivals or the new entrants tend to imitate OREO biscuits. Moreover, this OREO biscuits also had been used by many other markets as such Mc Donald has been used this product with their ice creams which is Mc Flurry Oreo. There are also some forces that affect the threats of new entrants which are political, economic, social and technological. As for political, if the government brings out higher product license cost and increased taxes or implements strict health and safety regulations along with more documentation procedures, this will increase the barriers to entry. Besides, in case of improvement in the economy, more people could afford to go buy more products which give more opportunities for new brands and products to come up. The current social trend is in favor of the consumer to choose type of food that were eased in packaging as more people adopt a lifestyle that includes less time for preparation of food. Thereby, increasing their demand will also increasing the threat of new entrants. The rise in innovative technology has made management and the process of manufacturing the products very easy and the new sophisticated software now enable the manufacturers to run with less number of employees, thereby, reducing the labor cost. Thus, this factor increases the threat of new entrants. As for the force of potential development of substitute product, it is actually a threat from substitutes exists if there are alternative products with lower prices of better performance parameters for the same purpose. They could potentially attract a significant proportion of market volume and hence reduce the potential sales volume for existing players. This category also relates to complementary products. In easy words this type of force is a pressure from the substitute or alternative products which is offering lower price and better performance. As it can be seen from Kraft cases, we analyzed that there are several substitute products competing in the current trends as such the development of health product. This force comes from the demanding of consumers towards these health products as those containing less trans fat or fewer calories or those containing only organic ingredients. As currently, customers’ awareness is increasingly towards healthier lifestyle and more people suffering in many diseases such as obesity. Another substitute product that had been analyzed by our group is the currently trend of bottled water. It has becomes well established in the market and enhanced waters containing vitamins or supplements are gaining popularity. Another factor which gives the pressure from substitute products is the current trends of people dining out, and food produces are devoting more attention to products designed for restaurants, vending machines and other foodservice providers. Thus, this gives a stress to Kraft to develop their products in completing the demands of current trends towards the substitute products. One of the five forces is bargaining power of suppliers. The term suppliers comprises all sources for inputs that are needed in order to provide goods or services. Suppliers have a great deal of influence over an industry as they affect price increases and product quality. Suppliers are also essential for the success of an organization. Raw materials are needed to complete the finish product of the organization. Suppliers do have power. This power comes from; if they are the only supplier or one of few suppliers who supply that particular raw material either it costly for the organization to move from one supplier to another (known also as switching cost) or there is no other substitute for their product. The bargaining power of suppliers might be high because the inputs are not easily substituted, keeping in mind only those companies in the industries that are rather cautious about their inputs as poor quality inputs can cause them a hefty amount of business. Also, the inputs are usually of a perishable nature, thus, stock-ups are not possible, that is why reliability of suppliers is very important. Therefore, these companies usually have one or two major supplier of main inputs, who can provide good quality inputs in a timely manner. This is an unattractive aspect of this industry, that’s why; Kraft should integrate backward by probably has their own packaging factory or other ways in producing their own input without relying to other suppliers as such have their own dairy milk. It is in order to eliminate this power of suppliers. Besides, in other circumstances, when the input cost for bakers likes wheat, eggs and natural gas have declined recently, some bakeries and food manufacturers will slightly have an advantages of earning higher revenue as they offer the same price to the market even the suppliers had reduced the input price. The last five forces model is the bargaining power of customers. Similarly, the bargaining power of customers determines how much customers can impose pressure on margins and volumes his buyers power is significant in that buyers can force prices down, demand higher quality products or services, and, in essence, play competitors against one another, all resulting in potential loss of industry profits. In the case of Kraft, many consumers are cutting back on their spending by switching to store-brand products which will give a big impact towards Kraft product in trying to compete with those generally low price products. The bargaining powers of consumers tend to be seen from the impact of consumers are trying to stretch their dollars further and competition increasing. This is because the corporate and brand reputation are expected to become increasingly important in the way that they will try to improve their product, quality and services as such there are food safety programs have been adopted recently. Therefore, based on these recently trend, Kraft need to developed their services, products yet their strategies in increasing the brand’s name and reputation. Besides, customers today view food as an expression of their cultural and social identity and therefore asking a lot more from producers than just good quality. Thus, Kraft can look at this kind of pressure as their own opportunity to improve their existing products. As for the whole review, it can be seen that all of these five forces tend to give high and big pressure or force to Kraft. Hence, the strong pressure and intensity will make the result look negative towards the Kraft as it needs to compete in the fierce market and industry competition. Despite of all these stress and intensity, Kraft is still able to maintain and compete strongly within the food industry till these days even the company and all the management teams had faced fluctuation times with the company. Mostly, the firm that seems to have strong forces from these five forces model competition will take a step to quit or switch to another industry which has less severe forces. However, Kraft still continues operating and pulls through with all the intensity by implementing wise strategies to achieve its own mission and vision. This is resulted in the company’s market share and industry growth also tends to look good. In addition, Kraft always improves their strategies and means as to adapt quickly with the changes in the market. For examples, the CEO Rosenfeld has been leading the Kraft through a turnaround process designed to return the company to sustainable growth. Therefore, with all of these strong incoming pressures will give a hard time for Kraft to achieve sustainable competitive advantage yet they still able to compete strongly in the market. As a cessation, Porters fives forces model is an excellent model to use in analyzing a particular environment of an industry. So for example, if we were entering the industry, we would use Porters model to help us find out about; Competitive rivalry, Power of suppliers, Power of buyers, Threats of substitutes and Threat of new entrants. The above five main factors are key factors that influence industry performance; hence it is common sense and practical to find out about these factors before we enter the new industry. | Kraft Food | Nestle| Con Agra| Critical Success Factors| Weight| Rating| Weighted Score| Rating| Weighted Score| Rating| Weighted Score| 1) Research and Development 2) Advertising 3) Restructuring 4) Product Brand Name 5) Financial 6) Health and Wellness Product 7) Market share| 0. 200. 200. 150. 100. 150. 100. 10| 4432321| 0. 800. 800. 450. 200. 450. 200. 10| 4344423| 0. 800. 600. 600. 400. 600. 200. 30| 3122241| 0. 600. 200. 300. 200. 300. 400. 10| Total| 1. 00| | 3. 00| | 3. 50| | 2. 10| 5. 2 CPM –Competitive Profile Matrix Analysis: Kraft Food is currently below Nestle which is 0. 50 in different as compared to Nestle total weighted score above. A key of success of Kraft Food was James Kraft’s commitment to developing new products. For example in 2010, Kraft Food China launched a strong pipeline of innovative products, including Oreo Ice Cream Flavor and Mini-snack biscuits. Moreover, the other key critical success factor is on the advertising. In advertising also is one of the important key success factor that makes the company more well know to the customers and the way they advertise the company are based on the media, consumers journals, outdoors billboard and others. Contrary with ConAgra, they are not actively focusing on the advertising method. In terms of restructuring, as a result of merger with Philip Morris and National Company, the company became the largest food company in US and the second largest in the world. However, as compared to Nestle, it has established joint ventures with giants like Coca Cola, General Mills and L’Oreal that are helpful in providing knowledge on different technological aspects and to ConAgra, they only realignment of ConAgra Foods from three operating channels to two, with the previous ConAgra Foodservice being merged with ConAgra Food Ingredients to form ConAgra Foods Commercial. Furthermore, in terms of products brand name, Kraft Foods only have 100 different brand name food products and tracks as compared to Nestle which is it has a vastly diversified product portfolio containing approximately 6000 brands (beverages, ice creams, frozen food items, chocolates and biscuits, pet care nutrition items, etc. ) Nevertheless, Nestle is doing outstandingly better in terms of financial as their key success factor compared to Kraft Food and ConAgra because in 2010, a turnover of RM4. billion for the Financial Year Ended 31 December 201, 7. 5% increase over the previous financial year, benefiting from positive consumer sentiments and renewed confidence arising from strong developments in both the global and local economies as with Kraft Foods, only RM49, 207,000. In terms of health and wellness of the products, Kraft Foods is doing the same as its competitors Nestle, and ConAgra is doing better because they are continuously upgrading in food safety by investing $25mill ion into training initiatives.